introduced two conceptual frameworks to describe various aspects of adult learning and to simulate related research.
The first of these concepts was the Chain-of-Response (COR) which pertains to adult participation in learning (Hiemstra). This was the rough beginning of a conceptual framework designed to identify the relevant variables and to hypothesize their interrelationships. Cross delineated some common elements of earlier participation models for COR: motivation to participate is the result of an individualÆs perception of both positive and negative forces; personality types with low self-esteem are difficult to attract to education; congruence exists between participation and anticipation of learning outcomes; lower order needs for safety and security must be met before higher order needs for achievement and self-actualization can be met; expectations of reward are important to motivation. In this model, there are two-way relationships between self-evaluation and attitudes about education; importance of making and meeting goals and life transactions, and also with opportunities and barriers, and participation; opportunities and barriers and information about the environment and also with participation.
In a second model, Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) Conceptual Framework, CrossÆs model had two classes of variables: the first is entitled personal characteristics, and includes variables labeled Physiological/Aging, Sociocultural/Life Phases, ans Psychological Developmental Stages (Hie
...