The concept and the principles of classical conditioning were developed by Pavlov. This approach also is referred to as stimulus substitution. To cause a being to respond to a specific stimulus, classical conditioning begins with promoting the desired behavior through the use of a stimulus that it is known that will elicit a response in the being. During this behavior another stimulus is introduced. Eventually, the being is conditioned to respond to the alternative stimulus by exhibiting the target behavior. This process may be repeated to cause a being to respond to other stimuli (Gutnisky & Zanutto, 2004).
Pavlov's initial experiments involved the use of dogs. Watson later expanded the experiments to humans. Watson, as an example, demonstrated that a young child who had no fear of rats could be conditioned to fear rats (Hopko, Robertson, & Lejuez, 2006).
The concept and principles of operant conditioning were developed by Skinner. The focus of operant conditioning is on voluntary behaviors on the part of a being. Beings voluntarily exhibit behaviors in efforts to control or to manipulate their environments (Mohr & Pumariega, 2004; Nelson-Gray, Mitchell, Kimbrel, & Hurst, 2007). The basic elements of Skinner's conception of operant conditioning are as follows:
> Positive reinforcement (reward): The premise of positive reinforcement is that positive responses to a voluntary behavior exhibited by a being will motivate the being to repeat the behavior.
> Negative reinforcement: The premise of negative reinforcement is that a response that results in relief for a being from an unpleasant situation likely will result in the being repeating the behavior that again will create an unpleasant situation that in turn will motivate the being to seek negative reinforcement.
> Punishment: The premise of punishment is that behaviors exhibited by being that elicit painful (punishi...