According to these two authors, conditions at the turn of the century shaped how the country viewed schools and their mission. Cities were in a deplorable decline, immigration was rising, and factory-based industry caused social crises in every aspect of the American society (Oakes & Lipton, 1990, p. 165). Society turned to the institution of schools in order to find solutions to changes of such major proportion.
Everyone concerned with education--parents, policymakers, and teachers--saw that schools could teach immigrants the American ways. Schools could supervise adolescents and teach them to become factory workers. Schools were believed to be an avenue for upward mobility, and budding professionals learned the higher-status knowledge needed for future work (Oakes & Lipton, 1990, p. 165). Philosophically, the underlying belief for ability grouping practices in the early years was that there really isn't enough good education to go around (Oakes & Lipton, 1990, p. 165). Unfortunately, this mode of thinking resulted in grouping practices which perpetuated racial and ethnic differences. Over a period of time grouping solutions became problems in and of themselves (Oakes & Lipton, 1990, p. 165).
At this time, the prevailing mode of economic thinking influenced society to view children as raw material from which adults would be created. From a modern standpoint, this is a bit difficult to conceptualize, but it is congruent with an industrial philosophy. Efficient factories were desirable for industrial America, and the schools were viewed as factories which were supposed to turn out educated persons, much as Fords from an assembly line (Oakes & Lipton, 1990, p. 167). Scientific styles of management led policymakers to behave much the same as quality control workers in the plant; differences among children were labeled as flaws and grouped in conveniently managed ways.
It is important to note that thinking in the ear...