ly part of this century was markedly different from that of the 1990s. Lewis Terman, the intelligence test pioneer, apparently said that children of certain racial groups are dull. They should be segregated into special classes and taught to be efficient workers (Oakes & Lipton, 1990, p. 166). School grouping practices eventually followed this mode of thinking. Social Darwinism seemed to prevail, suggesting that darker-skinned, more recent arrivals from other countries were supposed to be placed on a lower lung of the evolutionary ladder. Early achievement testing seemed to support the idea that some children's intellectual, moral, and biological differences were quite far-reaching (Oakes & Lipton, 1990, p. 166). Unfortunately school testing was sometimes used to substantiate the learning limits of children, an oddly distorted excuse for institutionalizing racial differences.
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