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By the sixteenth century, perfumes were regularly used in western Europe to add scent to wigs (for men and women) and to clothing, such as gloves and hats. Spicers, as those who manufactured perfumes were then called, also supplied perfumes to the wealthy for embalming purposes. But the first shops dedicated to the sale of scented items did not open in England until the beginning of the eighteenth century, when Charles Lillie opened a shop. A second perfumer followed in the same district.
By the 1800s, the firm of Floris was well established as a manufacturer of sponges and vinaigrettes, as well as lavender water. In addition to personal scents, such as perfumes for handkerchiefs, Floris also produced scented powders for sachets and to perfume drawers and writing desks. Scented objects and personal fragrances remained in the realm of the wealthy at this point; it was in the early twentieth century that they began to spread to the lower economic classes.
The industrial revolution spawned improved manufacturing processes as well as new marketing techniques. As a result, many items, including fragrances, could be mass produced. Perfume is the most pure of the fragrances, containing the highest level of distilled flavors with a fixative. Cologne contains some percentage of alcohol in addition to the distilled flavors, while eau de toilette contains a high level of alcohol and less of the original scent. Perfume, is considered to last the longest, followed by cologne and eau de toilette; perfume is also the most expensive of the three, followed by cologne and eau de toilette, respectively. Most manufacturers today make a variation of each of these substances for their largest selling fragrances. In addition, secondary items, such as sachets, bath oil, dusting powder and room perfumes are also often manufactured. For the purposes of this research, the term "perfume" will be used to refer to all of these substa...