re greatly reinforces the lack of adequate principal training and development at a time when expectations and demands are rising. Universities often control entrance into the profession and traditional models of training are inadequate in contemporary times. Newer approaches are relying on intensive training in communication and problem solving skills, including shadowing or mentoring of successful principals. There is a long way to go before such training evolves to the point where principals are prepared for the challenges, expectations, and demands of the position. According to Keller (2000) in Education Week, “If principals are the key to a school’s success, why is the preparation so unsatisfactory—about as wrongheaded as expecting someone to whip up a meal for a hungry crowd on the basis of some courses in economics and chemistry?” (36).
Principals are critical to training middle-managers to solve problems and communicate in ways that achieve organizational goals. In training middle management, both content standards and process standards must be addressed. Content standards represent the “what” of professional development while process standards pertain to “how” professional development should be delivered. School context is critical for successful training of middle managers. Solid content and powerful training strategies are often ineffective in the wrong school context. Norms of the organization have a significant impact on training and a principal’s ability to effectively develop middle management to improve problem solving and communication skills. As DuFour (2001) maintains, “The most significant contribution a principal can make to developing others is creating an appropriate context for adult learning. It is context—the programs, procedures, beliefs, expectations, and habits that constitute the norm for a given school—that plays the largest role in determining whether professional de...