r imagined, with perceived self-inadequacy, they resort to frantic efforts to avoid separation at all costs.
The unrealistic expectations of the BPD individual often lead to a pattern of unstable and intense relationships, criterion 2 in the DSM-IV list. BPD individuals tend to develop strong, initial attachments early in their relationships with others. If the attachment turns sour, the BPD individual will just as quickly devalue the former loved one: "These individuals are prone to sudden and dramatic shifts in their view of others, who may alternately be seen as beneficent supports or as cruelly punitive" (DSM-IV, 1994, p. 651).
Criterion 3 relates to instability of self-image. The BPD individual is prone to continually redefine his or her goals, values, opinions, plans, sexual identity, or career aspirations. Many BPD individuals have a negative self-concept, while others at times believe themselves to be non-entities. Because they tend to drift in their belief in their own abilities, BPD individuals usually do not excel in unstructured situations. In Kohut's view, BPD is related to defects in the structure of self characterized by: "low self-esteem, depression, a deep sense of uncared-for worthlessness and rejection, and a hunger for response and reassurance" (Masterson, 1981, p. 17).
Research by Southwick, Yehuda, and Giller (1995) provides insight on the self-critical nature of the BPD individual. BDP research subjects showed higher levels of self-criticism than patients with major depression. The authors' findings corroborate Kernberg's assertion that BPD individuals suffer from primitive guilt: "In his view, individuals with borderline personality feel unable to live up to abnormally high internal standards and suffer from excessive demands and punitive self-judgments" (Southwick, Yehuda, and Giller, 1995, p. 790).
The impulsivity of BPD individuals can lead to self-destruction. Impulsivity (Criter...