ompetence (as has been done in some states) sets the stage for simplistic goals. There develops a tendency to teach for tests and for surface rather than deep learning. There is a great range of learning performance that goes beyond simple test scores. Moreover, student learning is, in part, determined not by school or teacher competence but student willingness and willingness depends on a host of non-school related factors such as the learner's sociocultural environment.
4. Compare empirical evidence and classical research.
Classical research is what I call the "testimonial" approach. In this method, one relies heavily on inner logic and perception, examining the phenomena of interest by means of the subjective reflection and perceptions of "expert" or trained subjects. Empirical research, on the other hand, relies on observables as evidence for statements about phenomena. The emphasis is not upon what "experts" think and perceive but upon valid and reliable measurement
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