ng the impact of a decision is involved in the process of making it; American approaches usually involve no more than 8 to 10 people discussing alternatives. The Japanese orientation has a collective sense of responsibility and collective values and beliefs are part of every decision. Industrial life is viewed as integrated and interdependent; individual effort does not lead to anything of consequence. Economic and social life are integrated and this results in close relationships between individuals. Symbols and rituals may communicate underlying values (Ouchi, 1981b; Ouchi, 1982b).
The Z Organization, Japanese management, American style consists of lifetime work relationships; these relationships are not formally stated, but stem from the nature of the business which usually requires a lot of learning-by-doing. Employee skills tend to be company specific. These tasks develop through a slow process of evaluation and promotion. Decision-making may be collective but ultimate responsibility resides in one individual. The maintenance of individual responsibility is critical to
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