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Lazarus, Averill, & Opton, 1974).

2. Study question two. The independent variable is the approach to the control of lowback pain. The first approach is psychological coping, which includes such strategies as (a) keeping busy to forget the problem, (b) trying harder to make things work, and (c) counseling to reduce stress (Crook, Tunks, Kalaher, & Roberts, 1988). The second approach is physical therapy, which may include (a) physical fitness regimens, (b) posture control, or (c) surgery. The dependent variable is the level of lowback pain experienced. Lowback pain is defined as such pain experienced for one year or longer (Lazarus, Averill, & Opton, 1974).

3. Study question three. The independent variable is the approach to the control of lowback pain. The first approach is psychological coping, which includes such strategies as (a) keeping busy to forget the problem, (b) trying harder to make things work, and (c) counseling to reduce stress (Crook, Tunks, Kalaher, & Ro

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