d the factitious claim that science has not demonstrated the harmful effects of tobacco? More likely is the hypothesis that continuing to defend that claim was (1) bound to fail on the merits, in the face of overwhelming evidence that factitious science must fall before the real thing; and (2) bound to lose force in the face documentary evidence for (a) denying under oath what they knew to be true about tobacco's addictiveness and other health dangers in general and (b) denying that they engaged systematically in targeting niche youth markets in particular.
Rawls's theory of justice are articulated in A Theory of Justice can be reduced, if necessary, to the concept justice as fairness. The complex nature of the concept includes critique of modern social structure owing to the fact that access to the benefits of civil society have not been fairly distributed and diffused through those best and least able to survive and flourish in society. To explain the concept, Rawls specifically rejects utilitarianism in its various forms as inadequate to the real-world needs of modern society or the alleged needs of utopian society. His bias is in favor of a contract theory of social organization "as represented by Locke, Rousseau, and Kant" (Rawls, 1971, p. viii).
While admitting that applying principles of liberal society to real-world conditions is a vexed issue, Rawls takes the view that utilitarianism is not an appropriate answer to the problems with liberal philosophy. He uses the concept of the "average" (1971, pp. 27-8) to answer--and negate--the utilitarian social ideal of achievement of the greatest good for the greatest number. He notes that if there is a conflict between "claims of liberty and right on the one hand and the desirability of increasing aggregate social welfare on the other . . . we give a certain priority, if not absolute weight, to the former." Individual liberty is "not subject to political bargaining or to the calcu...