individual's qualities and characteristics or whether it is also associated with the situation, the group membership, the environment, the manager's power, and perceptual factors. Thus, thinking about male and female management in rigid ways seems less than fruitful.
In general, the research has indicated that male and female differences in leadership are slight (Robbins, 1996). Robbins noted that one of the reasons that research has indicated that male and female leaders are more similar than different is that the studies are based on male and female managers, which leads to a career self selected and organization selected population that tends to be similar. In other words, the people who choose to be managers tend to have similar characteristics, and the people who hire and promote managers tend to be looking for the same kind of people. Thus, the women who succeed as managers (as well as the men) are likely to be more alike than different. This does not prove, however, that men and women have identical ways of managing or leading, but that the population currently selected as managers has certain common characteristics.
An earlier piece of research tends to support this contention. Brown (1979) reviewed the literature on male versus female leaders, reviewing 32 studies on female leadership, including trait, style, and contingency frameworks. He also studied both student studies and managerial studies.
The outcome of this review of the literature indicated that results differed according to the type of study. Trait studies universally found women to be ineffective leaders, while style and contingency studies were split. Student studies indicated that women's leadership style differ from men and was less effective. On the other hand, managerial studies did not support traditional female stereotyping. Brown hypothesized that organizational socializing processes made the difference. This could lead either to women...